Christopher McCandless Essay

Christopher Johnson McCandless (February 12, 1968 – August 1992) was an American hiker who adopted the alias Alexander Supertramp and ventured into the Alaskan wilderness in April 1992 with little food and equipment, hoping to live simply for a time in solitude. Almost four months later, McCandless’s remains were found, weighing only 67 pounds (30 kg). It has recently been speculated that Chris had developed lathyrism, caused by his consumption of seeds from a flowering plant in the legume family which contain the neurotoxin ODAP. McCandless’s resulting paralysis would have caused a gradual inability to move, hunt or forage and this could have led to his death from starvation.[1] His death occurred in a converted bus used as a backcountry shelter, near Lake Wentitika in Denali National Park and Preserve. In January 1993, Jon Krakauer published McCandless’ story in that month’s issue of Outside magazine. Inspired by the details of McCandless’s story, Krakauer wrote and published Into the Wild in 1996 about McCandless’ travels. The book was adapted into a film by Sean Penn in 2007 with Emile Hirsch portraying McCandless. That same year, McCandless’s story also became the subject of Ron Lamothe’s documentary The Call of the Wild. A full-length article on McCandless also appeared in the February 8, 1993 issue of the The New Yorker magazine.[2] Earlier years[edit] Christopher McCandless was born in El Segundo, California, the first of two children to Walter â€Å"Walt† McCandless and Wilhelmina â€Å"Billie† Johnson. Chris had one younger sister, Carine. In 1976, the family settled in Annandale, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C., after his father was employed as an antenna specialist for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). His mother worked as a secretary at Hughes Aircraft and later assisted her husband with his successful home-based consulting company in Annandale. Walt and Billie often fought and sometimes contemplated divorce.[citation needed] Chris and Carine had six half-siblings living in California from Walt’s first marriage. Walt was not yet divorced from his first wife when Chris and Carine were born; however, Chris did not discover his father’s affair until a summer trip to Southern California[3] in 1986. This discovery caused him to hold a lot of bitterness towards his father, and could have been a factor in his views about society. At school, teachers noticed McCandless was unusually strong-willed.[citation needed][who?] In  adolescence he coupled this with intense idealism and physical endurance. In high school, he served as captain of the cross-country team, urging teammates to treat running as a spiritual exercise in which they were â€Å"running against the forces of darkness †¦ all the evil in the world, all the hatred.†[4] On June 2, 1986, McCandless graduated from W.T. Woodson High School in Fairfax, Virginia. On June 10, McCandless embarked on one of his first major adventures in which he traveled throughout the country in his Datsun B-210, arriving at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, two days prior to the beginning of fall classes. His upper middle class background and academic success were drivers for his contempt of what he saw as the empty materialism of society. McCandless was strongly influenced by Jack London, Leo Tolstoy, W. H. Davies and Henry David Thoreau. In his junior year, he declined membership in the Phi Beta Kappa Society, on the basis that honors and titles were irrelevant. McCandless graduated from Emory on May 12, 1990, with a Bache lor’s degree, double majoring in history and anthropology. He envisioned separating from organized society for a Thoreauvian period of solitary contemplation. Travels[edit] In May 1990, Christopher McCandless donated the remaining $24,000, given to him by a family friend for his law degree, to Oxfam International, a hunger prevention charity. Towards the end of June, he began traveling under the name â€Å"Alexander† McCandless until later adopting the last name of â€Å"Supertramp† (Krakauer notes the connection with Welsh author W. H. Davies and his 1908 autobiography The Autobiography of a Super-Tramp). Most people he encountered regarded him as intelligent and one who loved to read. By the end of the summer, McCandless made his way through Arizona, California and South Dakota, where he worked at a grain elevator in Carthage. He survived a flash flood, but allowed his car to wash out (although it suffered little permanent damage and was later reused by the local police force as an undercover vehicle) and disposed of his license plate.[citation needed] In 1991, McCandless paddled a canoe down remote stretches of the Colorado River to the Gulf of California. He crossed the border to Mexico and, having gotten lost in many dead-end canals, was towed by duckhunters to the sea, where he stayed for some time. He took pride in surviving with a minimum of gear and funds, and generally made little preparation. Alaskan Odyssey[edit] For years, McCandless dreamed of an â€Å"Alaskan Odyssey† wherein he would live off the land of the Alaskan wilderness, far away from civilization, and â€Å"find himself†[citation needed]. He kept a journal describing his physical and spiritual progress as he faced the forces of nature. In April 1992, McCandless hitchhiked from Enderlin, North Dakota, to Fairbanks, Alaska. He was last seen alive on April 28, 1992, by Jim Gallien, a local, who gave him a ride from Fairbanks to the head of the Stampede Trail. Gallien was concerned about â€Å"Alex†, who had minimal supplies (not even a compass) and no experience surviving in the Alaskan bush. Gallien repeatedly tried to persuade Alex to defer his trip, and even offered to drive him to Anchorage to buy suitable equipment and supplies. However, McCandless ignored Gallien’s warnings, refusing all assistance except for a pair of Wellington rubber boots, two tuna melt sandwiches, and a bag of corn chips. Gallie n allowed Chris to wander off with the belief that he would head back towards the highway within a few days as his eventual hunger set in. After hiking along the snow-covered Stampede Trail, McCandless found an abandoned bus (about 40 miles (64 km) west of Healy) used as a hunting shelter and parked on an overgrown section of the trail near Denali National Park, and began to live off the land. He had 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of rice, a Remington semi-automatic rifle with 400 rounds of .22LR hollowpoint ammunition, several books including one on local plant life, and some camping equipment. He assumed he could forage for plant food and hunt game. For the next thirty days or so, McCandless poached porcupines, squirrels, and birds, such as ptarmigans and Canada geese. On June 9, 1992, he managed to kill a moose; however, he failed to preserve the meat properly, and within days it spoiled and was covered with maggots. His journal contains entries covering a total of 112 days. These entries range from ecstatic to grim with McCandless’ changing fortunes. In July, after living in the bus for three months, he decided to leave, but found the trail back blocked by the Teklanika River, which was then considerably higher and swifter than when he crossed in April. Unknown to McCandless, there was a hand-operated tram that crossed the river only 1⠁„4 of a mile away from where he h ad previously crossed. In the 2007 documentary The Call of the Wild, evidence is presented that McCandless had a map at his disposal, which should have helped him find  another route to safety.[5] McCandless lived in the bus for a total of 113 days. At some point during that time, presumably very near the end, he posted an S.O.S. note calling on anyone passing by to help him because he was injured and too weak. The full note read: â€Å" Attention Possible Visitors. S.O.S. I need your help. I am injured, near death, and too weak to hike out. I am all alone, this is no joke. In the name of God, please remain to save me. I am out collecting berries close by and shall return this evening. Thank you, Chris McCandless. August?[6] † Death[edit] On August 12, 1992, McCandless wrote what are apparently his final words in his journal: â€Å"Beautiful Blueberries.† He tore the final page from Louis L’Amour’s memoir, Education of a Wandering Man, which contains an excerpt from a Robinson Jeffers poem titled â€Å"Wise Men in Their Bad Hours†: Death’s a fierce meadowlark: but to die having madeSomething more equal to centuriesThan muscle and bone, is mostly to shed weakness.The mountains are dead stone, the peopleAdmire or hate their stature, their insolent quietness,The mountains are not softened or troubledAnd a few dead men’s thoughts have the same temper. His body was found in his sleeping bag inside the bus by Butch Killian, a local hunter, on September 6, 1992.[7] McCandless had been dead for more than two weeks and weighed an estimated 30 kilograms (66 lb). His official, undisputed cause of death was starvation. Krakauer suggests two factors may have contributed to McCandlessâ€⠄¢s death. First, he was running the risk of a phenomenon known as â€Å"rabbit starvation† due to increased activity, compared with the leanness of the game he was hunting.[8] Krakauer also speculates that McCandless might have ingested toxic seeds (Hedysarum alpinum or Hedysarum mackenzii) or a mold that grows on them (Rhizoctonia leguminicola produces the toxic alkaloid swainsonine). However, an article in Men’s Journal stated that extensive laboratory testing showed there was no toxin present in McCandless’s food supplies. Dr. Thomas Clausen, the chair of the chemistry and biochemistry department at UAF said â€Å"I tore that plant apart. There were no toxins. No alkaloids. I’d eat it myself.†[9] Analysis of the wild sweet peas, given as the cause of Chris’s death in Sean Penn’s film, turned up no toxic compounds and there is not a single account in modern medical literature of anyone being poisoned by this  species of plant.[5] As one journalist put it: â€Å"He didn’t find a way out of the bush, couldn’t catch enough food to survive, and simply starved to death.†[9] However, the possibility of death through the consumption of the mold, which grew on the seeds in the damp bags which McCandless stored them in, was considered a suitable explanation by Krakauer.[3] Subsequently the academic Ronald Ha milton made the link between the symptoms described by Chris and the poisoning of Jewish prisoners in the Nazi concentration camp in Vapniarca. He put forward the proposal that Chris McCandless died of lathyrism caused by ODAP poisoning from Hedysarum alpinum seeds which hadn’t been picked up by the previous studies as they were searching for alkaloid instead of toxic protein. The protein would be relatively harmless to a well-fed person on a normal diet, but toxic to someone who was malnourished, physically stressed, and on an irregular and insufficient diet, as McCandless was. Subsequent tests revealed ODAP was indeed present in the seeds. [10][11] Criticism[edit] McCandless has been a polarizing figure ever since his story first broke following his death, along with Krakauer’s Outside article on him in January 1993. While Krakauer and many readers have a largely sympathetic view of McCandless,[12] others, particularly Alaskans, have expressed negative views about McCandless and those who romanticize his fate.[13] The most charitable view among McCandless’s detractors is that his behavior showed a profound lack of common sense. He chose not to bring a compass, something that most people in the same situation would have considered essential. McCandless was also completely unaware that a hand-operated tram crossed the otherwise impassable river 0.25 miles (0.40 km) from where he attempted to cross. Had McCandless known this, he could easily have saved his own life.[4] There has been some speculation (particularly in details given in the Lamothe documentary) that he vandalised survival cabins and supplies in the area. However, Ken K ehrer, chief ranger for Denali National Park, denied that McCandless was considered a vandalism suspect by the National Park Service.[14] His venture into a wilderness area alone, without adequate planning, experience, preparation, or supplies, without notifying anyone and lacking emergency communication equipment, was contrary to every principle of outdoor survival and, in the eyes of many experienced outdoor  enthusiasts, nearly certain to end in misfortune. Alaskan Park Ranger Peter Christian wrote: When you consider McCandless from my perspective, you quickly see that what he did wasn’t even particularly daring, just stupid, tragic, and inconsiderate. First off, he spent very little time learning how to actually live in the wild. He arrived at the Stampede Trail without even a map of the area. If he [had] had a good map he could have walked out of his predicament [†¦ ] Essentially, Chris McCandless committed suicide.[13] Sherry Simpson, writing in the Anchorage Press, described her trip to the bus with a friend, and their reaction upon reading the comments that tourists had left lauding McCandless as an insightful, Thoreau-like figure: Among my friends and acquaintances, the story of Christopher McCandless makes great after-dinner conversation. Much of the time I agree with the â€Å"he had a death wish† camp because I don’t know how else to reconcile what we know of his ordeal. Now and then I venture into the â€Å"what a dumb–† territor y, tempered by brief alliances with the â€Å"he was just another romantic boy on an all-American quest† partisans. Mostly I’m puzzled by the way he’s emerged as a hero.[15] Jon Krakauer defends McCandless, claiming that what critics point to as arrogance was merely McCandless’s desire for â€Å"being the first to explore a blank spot on the map.† Krakauer continues that â€Å"In 1992, however, there were no more blank spots on the map—not in Alaska, not anywhere. But Chris, with his idiosyncratic logic, came up with an elegant solution to this dilemma: He simply got rid of the map. In his own mind, if nowhere else, the terra would thereby remain incognita.†[16] Others have pointed out that a map of the area (although apparently not including the location of the hand-powered tram) was found among McCandless’s belongings, and refute the accusations that he intentionally discarded this map.[17]

Into the Wild Analysis

In the book, â€Å"Into the Wild† by Christopher McCandless's, is a true story about a young man name Emory who was found dead in the Alaskan wilderness in September 1992. Anyhow, McCandless is a senior at Emory. He has driven away most of his friends, and barely keeps in touch with his parents.He lets his parents think that he is interested in law school, but instead, after graduating with honors, he donates his $25,000 savings to charity, gets in his car, and drives away without telling anyone where he is going, abandoning the use of his real name along the way.His plan was to get away from city life, to be with nature. Shaun Callarman said that â€Å"I think that Chris McCandless was bright and ignorant at the same time. He had no common sense, and he had no business going into Alaska with his Romantic silliness. He made a lot of mistakes based on arrogance.I don't admire him at all for his courage nor his noble ideas. Really, I think he was just plain crazy.† I have to say that I agree with Shaun.I agree with Shaun because McCandless didn’t look ahead of his future. Instead he just threw himself into the wind. Which can be good sometimes but in this case it was a poorly decision. I don’t think McCandless took the time to think about basic essentials like food, health, clothes, safety and loneliness.I believe he was so driven by the anger of his dad, having a second family that he just wanting to escape that. I mean, a lot of people go through things like this; sometimes even worst.Likewise, I don’t see them throwing themselves into nature like that. Very foolish! It would have been okay if he had made back safely or was better prepare to do this; but he wasn’t. Therefore he die because in late July, McCandless eats some moldy seeds and the mold contains a poison that essentially causes him to starve to death.No matter how much he ate, he was to too weak to gather food . McCandless was quickly incapacitated by the po ison. If he had known his information about nature and knew that the seeds were dangerous, he probably still would have been alive longer.One thing I couldn’t wrap my head around was, those whom he tells about the plan all warn him that he needs to be better prepared, or should wait until later in the spring. Thus, being stubborn he still went on and did he own  thing.He was being hardheaded, which I feel like it another reason that lead to his death. In other words, these people who talk to him were like warnings. They even knew that it wasn’t a good idea but for some reason he didn’t pick on this. He went into Alaska without a map or planning of where he was going.I'm surprised he lasted as long as he did. If he'd of just had a map he wouldn't have been trap up at the river he was a crossing. But honestly the best thing was his realization that he does need other people, even though it was ultimately too late.To sum up, I thought that Chris' journey into the wilderness to seek the simple life was inspirational but he was extremely naive about his journey and was much unprepared for the conditions that he was facing.

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Monsanto Company the Coming Age of Bio-technology - Case Study Example From this essay it is clear that growing to become the third largest chemical firm in the U.S, and the 145th largest industrial organization, the success of Monsanto has presented a convincing long-term benefit for the company`s shareholders. However, according to the study, the firm faces a combination of issues, comprising the lack of a patent ahead of 2000, for its key product, Roundup. The company also needed to acquire the value generated by its biotechnology research that attracted an investment of $300 million within10 years. Moreover, and on a long-term approach, Monsanto had to settle on where to center its research and development regarding its farm level or industrial, and food products.This paper highlights that  the management of the production of glyphosate and developing supply chains relationship would empower the image of the business and acceptance of its products heavily. The firm managed to embrace the best scheme of action before the time limit that was to mark et assertively similar products, and glyphosate into the market before the patent expiration. Also, by acquiring a high grip of the Roundup before the end of the patent, the firm would raise royalty fees, and the company will be able to balance the slight market share losses that could be incurred due to potential rival substitute products.  Ã‚  The firm was also making a significant stride by selling its products outside the U.S. Where it has proven massive sales. A positive initiative will better place Monsanto to govern the Asian market.

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Any topic that includes microeconomics - Term Paper Example Tariffs have adverse effects on an economy. However, governments continue imposing them on investors who import commodities from foreign nations (Gregory 2000 p 16). This essay is a critique of the economic implications of tariffs. It highlights the major reasons why governments impose tariffs on imported goods, which include; protection of the emerging as well as aging and incompetent local firms from unhealthy foreign competition, to enhance sustainability of local companies through prevention of dumping effect from foreign companies which may offer their products locally at an extremely low price that leads to losses by domestic firms (Mansfield and Yohe 23). The essay also presents the negative views of tariffs in regard to promoting trade and economic growth, which have been supported by various organizations such as the WTO and Word Bank. The double impact of tariffs on the economy imposing the tariffs as well the economy on which the tariffs have been imposed is highlighted. The impact of tariffs on the prices of locally manufactured goods, changes in demand for the goods and employment in the economy imposing the tariffs has been illustrated using the United States as an example of an economy imposing tariffs on foreign products from china (Swire 2009), and the Republic of Korea which illustrates an economy that does not impose taxes on foreign products in the domestic market. The essay also indicates the invisibility of the negative impacts of tariffs on the economy compared to the projected advantages. It also indicates the areas that need further research regarding tariff imposition, whereby researchers can search for information from published sources. One of the major reasons why governments impose tariffs on imports is to enhance the development of the emerging domestic industries to attain a size that able to cope with foreign competition. In other words it is one of the

European Recovery Program Essay Example for Free

European Recovery Program Essay His proposal would become known as the European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan. In his speech Marshall extended an offer to the Soviets. Certainly all of Europe was included in the proposal. Stalin was interested in the plan. Lenin had spoken of trade with the communist enemy when that enemy was in collapse. Stalin thought that if these were the correct circumstances then the Soviets could use the Marshall Plan as they wished. Such was not the case. American opposition to the Plan included such conservatives as Taft on the Right and Wallace on the Left. This opposition was much weakened by the seizing of the democratic government of Czechoslovakia in February 1948 (Kunz par. 20). Before that, in September, 1947, Andrei Zhdanov of the Politburo spoke before the Cominform for Eastern Europe to assert that the imperialists were trying to support fascist regimes (Zhdanov par. 2). He wanted the imperialist intrigues to be contained. George Kennan also wanted containment- of the communists and, if need be, of the Soviets. Kennan and William Clayton, both of the US State Department, had contributed greatly to the origination of the Marshall Plan. Kennan thought the world was becoming polarized into giant camps of freedom vs. everyone else. The Soviet Union as the centerpiece of concern would come later. Bernard Baruch, an American advisor, had introduced the term Cold War in April, 1947 (Cold War par. 1). Meanwhile, the communists of France and Italy were of immediate threat in Western Europe. These two nations were part of the fifteen nations that the Marshall Plan would aid. The others were Austria, Belgium, Denmark, West Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey (Marshall Plan par. 21). President Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3, 1948. The major items for the Europeans in 1948 were to be coal, steel, grains, and machinery (Judd par. 9). In the first year, food constituted half of all of the Marshall aid. Over the long haul, sixty percent was spend on food, fertilizer, and industrial goods. One sixth of the total was for fuel. Another one sixth was spent on machinery and vehicles. In sum, thirteen billion dollars of aid passed from the USA to Western Europe from 1948 to 1951 (DeLong and Eichengreen par. 3). The food, feed, and fertilizer consumed a little over three billion dollars of the total. Shortly after the Marshall Plan went into effect, Italys anti-communist and pro-Marshall Plan party won a majority. And then in France, after the communists won a plurality in 1945, they were on their way out in 1951 due to French economic prosperity. This prosperity in France and elsewhere was not of a minor magnitude. After 1948 Western Europe got its greatest economic growth ever recorded. The German part of the recovery became known as the wirtschaftwunder, or economic miracle (Kunz par. 3). Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, the Soviets were determined to see central planning become a reality. To that end, a forced industrialization was started which was to remove Eastern Europe from any influence by the Marshall Plan. Eastern European nations became satellites of the Soviets, as members of the Warsaw Pact, and got little civilian development in exchange for military support and control. The end products of manufacture and the harvests were directed to the Soviets. No financial or economic stability was developed by these countries. The Marshall Plan made the division of Europe definitive. The Plan seriously damaged the Western European communists’ efforts. Furthermore, the Marshall Plan has been termed inconceivable without the Cold War (Cronin 281). Soon enough, not only was the Marshall Plan in place to aid in the restoration of Western Europe, but it became a vital component in the Cold War. In the Cold War in Western Europe, Germany was a key country. It was to be split in two with the former Allies of WWII in Western Germany and the Soviets in Eastern Germany. But an odd development came about with Berlin, also spilt into east and west components, existing deep within Soviet controlled East Germany. This did not sit well with the Soviets and so they began a blockade of highways and roads into West Berlin in June, 1948.

Chinese and Western International Relations Theories

Chinese and Western International Relations Theories Chinese ancient school of thoughts[1] and Western International Relations theories: A comparative study Introduction Background of the study The study of international relations has classically focused on the cause of war and the conditions of peace. With China’s overwhelming economic growth and active diplomacy engaging in international affairs, numerous concerns of China’s emerging power have become priorities on international political agendas, which also lead to many academic researches on the manner in which China rises. The increasing attentions are drawn to Chinese perspectives of inter-states relations, because there are remarkable different perspectives and actions between China and western countries, for example, China’s outspoken opposition to international action against Libya, Syria, North Korea, and Iran. China’s no-string attached foreign aid policy on African countries has been frequently accused as support to corrupt and brutal dictators and a barricade of democratic progress, while most of western countries impose reform conditions when providing aid. As such, the rise of Chin a has not simply challenged the international status quo, but also challenged the conventional wisdom on international relations.[2] (Deng, 2008) As a consequence, debates are centered around questions on whether China’s rise will be a threat to the regional peace and world security. Over the past three decades, many western scholars have speculated that China will overthrow the current western-oriented international order and reshape the rules of the world in order to service its interests; can China peacefully replace U.S as a superpower; will China’s rise result in military conflict with its neighbor countries? Statement of the problem There has been no shortage of research on China’s potential to become a superpower. However, the western experience and thoughts usually conclude that China’s emerging power will be highly problematic and dangerous to the rest of world. It is hard to obtain a holistic explanation of the aforementioned differences from the obvious economic and geopolitical point of view alone. One needs an understanding of the Chinese core values and worldview which stems from Chinese philosophy. Although contemporary China has incorporated foreign thoughts including Marxism and Capitalism into its political and social system, ancient philosophy still plays a considerable role in its policy-making and in the international relations. As Rosita Dellios pointed out, for western politicians and scholars, any country whose actions have enormous impact on the â€Å"high politics† on the international stage, is worth studying at a deeper theoretical level, in particular its philosophy and perspective on the world order. The importance of the Chinese schools’ teachings on inter-state relations cannot be overestimated. It shapes policy-makers’ ideas, which in turn influence China’s foreign policy and behavior. A proper understanding of China’s philosophy concerning International relations and the view of the world affairs will help to increase the understanding, the causes of conflict and the condition for peace with regard to the rise of China. More over, the importance of culture and philosophical thoughts in IR theory has recently been highlighted by the publication of a book titled â€Å"The return of culture and identity in IR theory†, which pointed out that the question of culture, philosophical thought and identity have always been part of our analysis of the social world, even if often times underestimated. The return of culture and philosophical thoughts has been brought about partly by the failure of the traditional, positivist, neo-realist school to predict events associated with the ending of the Cold War. IR scholars are now reclaiming culture and identity in response to their mounting difficulties with exponential increase in global heterogeneity and diversity. (Chan,1999) Aims and objective The objectives of this study are two-fold. Firstly, it seeks analogies and dis-analogies between major Western International Relations theories and the philosophical traditions of China’s Spring Autumn and Warring states period. This is performed with the question of commensurability in mind. Secondly, it will examine the influence of ancient Chinese philosophical thoughts on contemporary Chinese policy-maker’s conception of international relations in approaching global affairs. These two objectives are closely related. As Dr. Henry Kissinger was cited in Yan Xue Tong’s book: If China became a strong world power, the Chinese government would adopt ancient Chinese philosophy rather than Marxism or Liberalism to guide its foreign policy and the people outside China would be eager to learn about these ancient Chinese philosophical thoughts. (Yan, 2013) This research aims to bridge the gap between Western studies of the Chinese interstate relations and China’ s own perception of its rise in world politics. My concern is not only to explore the commonality but also to induce the recurrence of a wide variety of philosophical practice in contemporary world politics. Limits of the Study There is sufficient research on various ancient Chinese schools of philosophy on moral notions and domestic governance. This study will only discuss classical Chinese thought on inter-state relations, interstate order, transfer of hegemonic power and world leadership. The aim of this research is to lay a foundation for genuine dialogue of civilizations between East and West in terms of perspectives of international relations. This is expected to be conductive to a mutual learning process and has potential to enrich modern IR theory by casting Chinese thoughts. Research Questions Is there any commonality between Western IR theories and ancient Chinese schools of thought, where does it arise and what form does it take? Does ancient Chinese school of thought of interstate relations still have implications on contemporary Chinese foreign policy? Methodology This research will horizontally juxtapose Western IR theories and major ancient Chinese schools of philosophy (Legalism, Confucianism, Daoism and Guan Zi’s thoughts) by comparing their analytic methodology, main arguments, views on hegemony, and their empirical implications for China’s rise. Analogies and dis-analogies in those philosophical practices will be traced out between Chinese and Western thinking. Vertically, comparison among thoughts of Chinese philosophers will also be employed. According to Waltz’s three levels of analysis of international relations (Individual, State, and System), Confucius analyzed interstate relations based on individual moral values. Guan Zi and Han Fei Zi’s analyses however, emphasize the level of the state. Lao Zi (Daoism) conducts his analyses at the system level, from the perspective of the abrstract world. Comparisons between Chinese classical schools of philosophy and western IR theory will be employed as follows: Legalism (Xun Zi and Han Fei Zi) VS. Realism Briefly speaking, Xun Zi (313-238 BC) and his students, such as Han Fei Zi, have a dark notion of the human-nature just as realism. This is not unlike Machiavelli’s and Hobbes’s state of nature, which they described as a condition where men are engaged in a war of all against all, constantly struggling for survival. According to Classic realism scholar Morgenthau, the human nature is rational, egoistic and constantly seeking to maximize power. These anthropologic premises can be transferred to the behavior of a state in an international system. Xun Zi and Han Fei Zi also described human nature are vicious, constantly pursuing self-interest and benefit. Xun Zi believed that the ideas of a state’s leader have a determining role on its nature. The stability of the international system depends on the nature of the state. Xun Zi listed basic moral principals, such as credibility and trust among allies as necessary for a leader to gain world leadership. If an issued de cree turns out to incur loss for the government but benefit the people, the leadership should uphold it rather than lose the trust of his people by abandoning it; if a ratified treaty between allies is in conflict with a state’s self-interests, the state should not withdraw from it as to not lose the trust of his allies. A recent example for this is the protocol of Kyoto; the US, typically assuming the role of the world leader, shirked its responsibility to reduce greenhouse gas emission and has been blamed for this by other nations. Xun Zi emphasizes the importance of credibility among allies to gain hegemonial power, rather than employing tricks to cheat its allies. In addition, the comparison not only reveals parallels between Machiavelli’s and Han Fei Zi’s thoughts about the politic reality and morality, but also display subtle differences between them. Guanzi’s thoughts VS. Neoliberalism Guan Zhong (d. 645 B.C.) was a prime minister of the State of Qi in the Spring and Autumn period, the Guan Zi is one of theà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬collections of Guan Zhong’s thoughts concerning statesmanship. Guan Zhong’s domestic policies and diplomatic strategy helped the Qi state to become the leading state and hegemon in the Spring and Autumn Period. Guan Zhong believed that the economic well-being was the foundation of a state. â€Å"When the granaries are full, the people will know propriety and moderation. When their food and clothing is adequate, they will know the honor and shame†[3]. This reflects the underlying notion of the rational individual. People with sufficient wealth would be easily cultivated with decency and etiquette, and be more like to obey the regulation. Then, a rational individual can enjoy their freedom and pursue their interest. Guan Zhong’s reform motivates farmers, handcraft men, and businesses by lowering tax and reducing government interference in order to promote production and free economy mechanism. Meanwhile, due to beneficial trade policies, the Qi state became the busiest trade center in ancient China. Guan Zi’s perspective has commonality with contemporary liberal assumptions associated with John Locke and Immanuel Kant. According to Kant, the rational quality of the indivi dual, despite their self-interest, will lead individuals to cooperate and construct a peaceful world. Moreover, Guan Zhong also recognized the anarchical world order is a reason for world’s instability. He called for all states to honor the king of Zhou and to set up international norms, to avoid anarchy and restore the hierarchy of the Zhou dynasty, which would reduce the likelihood of war. In addition, he proposed a confederation. Its member remained sovereign, linked only by partially federal institutions and by collective security alliances against barbarian in the northern China as in Europe today. In contrast to most liberals’ perspectives of the equality of state sovereignty, Guan Zi believed that there was hierarchical structure between members of a confederation. States are not equal, powerful states should take greater responsibility. Perhaps, the account of Guan Zhong may better explain reality of the international system. We can notice that the features of hierarchical structure and power relationships among members of the main international organizations today: Permanent members of United Nations, voting structure of World Bank and International Monetary Fund[4]. The aim of Guan Zhong’s reforms were to build a justified hegemony status for Qi, similar to Charles P. Kindleberger[5] and Robert Keohane’s hegemonic stability theory, which argues that to maintain the stability of the international system, a single dominant world power is needed to enforce and develop the rules of the system. Confucianism VS. Idealism Confucianism has been an essential element in Chinese society, politics and international relations. Confucianism highlights the role of virtue for harmony and peace (à ¥Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã…’). Moral standards of â€Å"ren† (benevolence)à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬and â€Å"li† (rituals, moral standards)à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬will be able to maintain harmony in family, stability in a nation, and peace in the whole world. Confucius emphasized that good government and internal peace and prosperity of a nation would play a significant role in the world and serve as a universal paradigm for other nations. Confucius’s scholar, Kang You Wei, advocates moral reforms to extend Chinese benevolence to the Westerners to avoid direct conflict (Feng, 2007). To some extent, Confucianism perspectives parallel classical liberalism, which rests upon the normative premise: although liberals accept that different societies have different values and norms, they believe in peace as the one common interest of all societies. Daoism Daoism is brought about by Lao Zi and developed by Zhuang Zi and Sun Zi. Dao means the universal objective laws. Lao Zi summarized the law of universe by observing regular patterns of nature and human beings. This can best be understood by observing the parallel to the modern notion of the laws of nature. According to modern understanding, the universe and all beings and objects within it, rely on a small set of universal objective laws. Everything that evolves within the universe can be derived from these laws, even if enormous complexity can obscure this fact. Indeed, it is widely believed that a final, single law (GUT) can be found from which everything else can be derived. In this spirit, one should understand Lao Zi’s sentence â€Å"The dao bears one, one bears†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (â€Å"à ©Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å"à §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ…’à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ…’à §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ §Ã¢ € Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ). This principle is reflected in the principle of the scientific method. The outset is the scientific mind observing its environment and recognizing a pattern (à ©Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å"à §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬), by continued research, the pattern can be refined into a law (à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ…’), which itself is the starting point for further refinement (à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ…’à §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ °). This chain bears the potential to create a whole universe (à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ©). There is an incisive exposition in regard to international relations in Chapter 61 of â€Å"Dao De Jing†, which reads as follows: The great country may be compared to a low-lying lake where many rivers converge;à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨it is the mixing place of the world, the reservoir of all under heaven, t is said that by practice of quiescence and humility the great can absorb and conquer the small witho ut effort,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨and the small and insignificant can gain riches and treasure by submitting to the great.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨The great state wishes to keep and nourish its people, and help others.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨The small state wishes to help its people by joining with the peace and strength of the larger state.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Both states get what they wish by submitting.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Greatness lies in placing oneself below.à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬(Translated by John Dicus, 2002).à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Lao Zi emphasized stillness and humbleness in inter-states relations.à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬The legacy of Daoism has influenced contemporary Chinese foreign policies and has been well laid out in the five principles of Deng Xiao Ping’s foreign policy guidelines. The essence of Deng’s foreign policy is to keep a low key in international affairs and strengthen domestic affairs. According to Daoism, staying in neutral (à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¸) is safest and yields the most sustainable p rofit. â€Å"Don’t stick your head out† entirely discourage a state to pursue hegemony. This can be understood in terms of the western IR concept Balance of Power, which states that the power of a hegemon will always be counterbalanced by a strategic alliance of rivals in order to secure their interests. Conclusion In the course of this work we will compare major ancient Chinese philosophies to western theories and concepts in International Relations. We will pick a subset of each group and draw direct one-to-one comparisons in horizontal pairs. The choice of pairs is guided by the rough degree of similarity in the general framework. In particular we will compare Confucianism to Idealism, Guan Zi to Neoliberalism and Legalism to Realism, with the Chinese and the western part respectively. Complementarily, we will draw vertical comparisons among the ideas of the Chinese schools of philosophy. Preliminary Bibliography Acharya, A. (2011). Dialogue and discovery: in search of international relations theories beyond the West. Millennium-Journal of International Studies, 39(3), 619-637. Chad Hansen, (1992), A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation, Oxford University Press Gerald Chan,(1999), Chinese Perspectives on International relations: A Framework for Analysis, London, Macmillan Press LTD. Feng Huiyun (2007)Chinese Strategic Culture and Foreign Policy Decision-making: Confucianism, leadership and war, London, Routedge Yan Xuetong,(2011) Ancient Chinese Thought, Modern Chinese Power,Edited by Daniel A. Bell Sun Zhe. Translated by Edmund Ryden. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press Zhang, C. (2013). Understanding China’s attitude toward international order: from general delegitimization to selective embeddedness. Jeffrey W. Legro, (2007) What China Will Want: The Future Intentions of a Rising Power, Perspectives on Politics, American Political Science Association http://www.chinaguanzi.com/newsview.asp?id=790 Jack Snyder, ‘Some Good and Bad Reasons for a Distinctively Chinese Approach to International Relations Theory’, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the APSA, Hynes Convention Center, Boston, Massachusetts, 28 August 2008, 9, 10. [1] The tradition Chinese philosophy on inter-state relations originated from the Spring and Autumn Period ( 770bc-476bc) and the Warring States era (475bc-221bc). During these periods, the competition for territory and hegemony status among princely states forced states seek to balance of power and develop relationship among them. [2] Yong Deng, 2008, China’s Struggle for Status: the Realignment of International Relations, Cambridge University Press [3] à §Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ °Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ [4] Daniel A. Belll, p11 Introduction, [5] Charles Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929-39, Chapter 14, An Explanation of the 1929 Depression, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), pp. 291-308